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Yet a different effort to transform masculinities has started among civil society groups that have a goal that may be even more ambitious than physically transforming gender: They want to change how people think about "being a man" to break the connection between masculinity and violence that is the root cause of high rates of gender violence in the region.
However, the turn to boys, men and masculinities has not gone without resistance, contestation and contradictions.
Alignment with idealized masculinities has been shown to mediate a father's decision to continue smoking after the birth of a child [ 10- 13].
As much research on masculinities has emphasised, for the majority of men (if not all), the 'hegemonic masculinity' cannot be achieved and a multiplicity of masculinities flourish (21).
Over the last two decades, a focus on challenging and transforming dominant forms of masculinity and engaging boys and men towards gender equality and healthy masculinities has permeated South African social and health sciences and the humanities.
This is particularly important given that some research in the area of sexual and reproductive health and masculinities has tended to pathologise African sexualities and be disengaged from or dismissive of African cultures (Morrell, Jewkes, and Lindegger 2012; Ratele 2014).
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The possibilities of men changing their behaviors and masculinities have been alluded to by Barker and Ricardo (48).
There has further been a growing concern about the way in which South African masculinities have been foregrounded as inherently problematic.
Similar links between violence, rape, and gender inequitable masculinities have also been shown in the Asia Pacific region (17) and Latin America (18, 19).
Around the world, different cultural constructions of masculinities have been associated with men's unhealthy behaviors, such as aggression and risk taking, leading to a higher risk of morbidity and mortality over men's life course (30, 31).
Much of the proliferating research on masculinities in South Africa has tended towards focusing on areas of social concern where boys, men and masculinities have mostly been framed as a 'problem' and represented as violent and dangerous (Shefer, Stevens, and Clowes 2010).
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