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A similarly widening gap has been seen between the most educated and least educated workers, a rough marker of lifetime income.
It might be because serum antibody response is a marker of lifetime cumulative exposure and some cross protection between types might exist [ 50].
Bone mineral density is a surrogate marker of lifetime exposure to oestrogen and therefore is a risk factor for developing breast cancer (Cauley et al, 1996; Zhang et al, 1997).
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The urinary excretion of cadmium over 24 hr is a bio-marker of lifetime exposure (Järup et al. 1998).
It has been proposed that the associations of physical performance and strength with mortality rates and cardiovascular disease 2,3,35 may be explained by the fact that performance and strength are acting as markers of lifetime physical activity.
Estrogen is a known risk factor for breast cancer and many reproductive factors that are associated with risk, such as nulliparity, late age at first pregnancy, early menarche, and late menopause, are considered markers of lifetime exposure to estrogens [ 1].
U-Cd levels, which are a marker of cumulative lifetime Cd exposure, increased steadily with age in both males and females, reaching a plateau in groups who were ≥ 60 years of age.
The same broad patterns were discernable in subsequent episodes of work beyond the first, suggesting that first episodes of work are a marker for lifetime service in the NHS although longer term studies than ours would be needed to confirm this.
OBJECTIVES: Later menarche, and a longer time until onset of regular cycling, are considered markers of lower lifetime exposure to circulating ovarian hormones.
Previous observations support this theory: markers of increased lifetime estrogen exposure are associated with higher breast cancer risk [ 11], higher BMD [ 12- 14], and higher mammographic breast density [ 15, 16].
A simple linear regression model of the plasma-to-blood Pb ratio was fitted to assess the relationship between this marker and the number of lifetime abortions; for this model, loge transformation of the plasma/blood Pb ratio was used to achieve a normal distribution of the residuals.
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Justyna Jupowicz-Kozak
CEO of Professional Science Editing for Scientists @ prosciediting.com