Nevertheless, China's economic reform has broadened such a concept and led to a new understanding of "the working class," which includes four social divisions: workers providing physical labor (blue collar workers), workers providing mental labor (white collar workers), intellectuals conducting educational or scientific work, and civil servants and managerial cadres in the public sector (Liu 2001).
To ensure an even wider representation, informants were also identified from both executive and managerial cadres and from those with experience or interest in international policy exchange in diverse disciplinary areas such as healthcare, as well as educational policy and social policy reform.
The corporation was in the hands of what Galbraith called the "technostructure", a managerial cadre whose goal was growth of output, because that would bring them larger departments to manage and thus higher pay and better promotion possibilities.
For example, a bolder reform would draw a divide between policy, for which ministers would carry the can, and delivery, for which a more managerial cadre of civil servants would be accountable.
Stevens argues that by the late 1980s, "[i]n relative terms, the after-tax purchasing power of managerial, professional, and senior technical cadre salaries in the civil service was about one-twentieth of its value a decade and a half earlier" [[ 49]:68, see also [ 50]:6-7].
Therefore, for the purpose of this study, a standard occupational classification system designed by Office of population Census and Surveys, London (OPCS 1991) [ 15] modified based on local reality was used and patients were classified into three socio-economic groups: Class 1 = Skilled worker e.g professionals and managerial officers and retirees of this cadre.
As departments and managerial tasks grew more specialized, a large cadre of middle managers was required to produce the financial and performance reports needed by top executives for monitoring and directing company-wide operations.
Senior cadres were assigned to perform predominantly advisory and managerial roles in the health care system.
This cadre of professionals would then bring their administrative, managerial and technical expertise to bear on the formulation and implementation of the various development projects.
In its time, GE and its brutally efficient cadre of executives were symbols of everything Americans most admired about their managerial class.
There is endless debate about the cost of agency staff, of managerial layers, of GPs – as if the problems of this institution had been created overnight by a cadre of crooks and profiteers who had undertaken medical training in an act of supreme cunning.
