To directly discriminate between the two main effector pathways involved in this effect, the same experiment was performed with active PI3K or Raf pathway mutants.
Four main effector pathways of the IFN-mediated antiviral response have been recognized by gene targeting studies: the Mx GTPase pathway, the 2', 5'-oligoadenylate-synthetase-directed ribonuclease L (OASL) pathway, the protein kinase R (PKR) pathway and the interferon stimulated gene (ISG) 15 ubiquitin-like pathway.
RAF-MEK-ERK and PI3K-AKT are the two main effector pathways of KRAS.
The hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis and the sympathetic nervous system constitute the main effector pathways of the stress system.
Below, we will discuss the main effector pathways of KRAS and current approaches to develop combination therapies targeting these KRAS-effector pathways.
CD11b+Gr-1+ cells inhibit antigen-activated T cells through a cognate-independent mechanism that involves arginase and nitric oxide synthase as the main effector pathways [ 60].
The cellular response to ER stress results in the activation of the UPR, which consists of the three main effector pathways that are initiated by ER-localized transmembrane proteins, namely IRE1 α, PERK and ATF6 α.
This seeming contradictory function of cyclic AMP as both a mitogen and in promoting differentiation has been suggested to result from the two main downstream effector pathways of cyclic AMP, PKA and the exchange protein activated by cyclic AMP (EPAC) [ 46].
Lef1 represents another main effector of this pathway in HF morphogenesis; indeed, Lef1- null mice lack hair coat, and transgenic mice overexpressing inactive forms of Lef1 present severe alteration of differentiation and HF cell fate.
In mammals, the Yorkie homologue Yes-associated protein 1 (YAP1) represents the main effector of the hippo pathway and exerts its effects by forming nuclear complexes with co-activators of the TEAD family22,23.
