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Stimuli were presented in blocks of either high frequency or low frequency word triplets where a sample word appeared above a pair of test words.
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Semantic judgments while no less accurate, were associated with greater left prefrontal BOLD signal change when they involved low frequency words, whereas there was no reliable effect of word frequency in the reading condition.
Both word familiarity and degree of mismatch affected adults' use of phonetic detail: in their looking behavior, participants did not reliably differentiate single-feature mispronunciations and correct pronunciations of low frequency words.
Therefore, CHI formula also has "low frequency words flawed".
Here we are referring to high and low frequency words – so it means how often they occur.
Typically, not every word found in the training data is included in the vocabulary list as low frequency words could be typos.
For low frequency words, lemma and word form frequencies were lower than 10 per million.
The high and low frequency words were matched for length and character frequency [10].
We also discarded extremely low frequency words with which the participants may have been unfamiliar.
This resulted in 72 high and 72 low predictability trials per subject, with 36 high and low frequency words in either category.
This notion is congruent with data showing that stress dominance only affects low frequency words [11] suggesting slower access to the pronunciation (and stress placement) of low, relative to high frequency words.
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Since I tried Ludwig back in 2017, I have been constantly using it in both editing and translation. Ever since, I suggest it to my translators at ProSciEditing.

Justyna Jupowicz-Kozak
CEO of Professional Science Editing for Scientists @ prosciediting.com