This cooperation evolves through iterated processes of engagement (Grieco 1993; Setear 1997), and is achieved with the active involvement of international "institutions" or "regimes" as the loci of cooperation in solving the dilemma of collective action (Keohane and Nye 1977; Grieco 1993; Setear 1997; Dunne et al. 2007; Reus-Smit and Snidal 2008) within the international collaborative system.
The cooperative allele also failed to invade when the number of possible recognition alleles was low (k = 2), because the recognition locus provided inadequate information on relatedness at the cooperation locus for cooperation to be selectively favoured in this parameter space.
a pro-social allele at the SNM locus enables higher levels of cooperation at the ST among its bearers and selection responds to this; a higher level of cooperation (ST) leads to higher fitness for the bearers of the pro-social allele at the (linked) SNM locus; repeat.
There is a circularity here that warrants emphasis: a pro-social allele at the SNM locus enables higher levels of cooperation at the ST among its bearers and selection responds to this; a higher level of cooperation (ST) leads to higher fitness for the bearers of the pro-social allele at the (linked) SNM locus; repeat.
We also investigated the effects of dominance at the behaviour locus, but found that the phenotype of heterozygotes (h) had no effect on the equilibrium recognition locus diversity or the frequency of cooperation.
Figures 2 and 3 examine the effects of the model's parameters on recognition locus diversity and the frequency of cooperation at equilibrium.
The amount of extra offspring produced by mating pairs with dissimilar recognition alleles (x) was positively related to both recognition locus diversity and the frequency of cooperation, especially under disassortative mating.
At the start of each simulation, all individuals had a random recognition locus genotype and were homozygous for the non-cooperative allele; the model therefore considers the origin of cooperation based on pre-existing, polymorphic recognition cues.
We find, on theoretical grounds, that the mobilization of genes producing public goods favors the maintenance of cooperation by increasing relatedness at the mobile loci.
Assortative somatic fusion is a ubiquitous form of cooperation amongst fungi, and diversity at these loci is therefore predicted to be unstable.
Lastly, the probabilities of remaining in a specific state of cooperation, competition, and no coopetition are found, for the coopetition locus.
