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It is only from the 17th century onward that the development of Scottish Gaelic can be studied, for, up until then, Classical Modern Irish was the literary norm.
Meanwhile, however, the popular speech diverged further from the fixed literary norm, which was never spoken except in the pulpit or on the platform.
This division is necessarily arbitrary, and archaizing tendencies confuse the situation, especially during the period 1200 1600, when a highly standardized literary norm was dominant.
Beginning in the thirteenth century, works of verse narrative from the early Middle Ages were recast in prose, as if prose had become the literary norm.
This system began to break down during the Old Irish period; the process was no doubt accelerated by the Viking raids that began at the end of the 8th century and that disrupted the monastic system, the guardian of the literary norm of Old Irish.
It has preserved several ancient features, remaining more consistent with the literary norm, while at the same time developing a few innovations.
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The book, which built on the work of other poets like José Martí, shattered the stodgy literary norms of the day and breathed new life into the language.
(Nemtsov, "Catcher on a Grain Field") It's clear that Rait-Kovaleva has subtly shifted Caulfield's speech into closer accord with good Russian literary norms, while Nemtsov's Caulfield is both brassier and crasser, exaggerating his supposed iconoclasm.
It's clear that Rait-Kovaleva has subtly shifted Caulfield's speech into closer accord with good Russian literary norms, while Nemtsov's Caulfield is both brassier and crasser, exaggerating his supposed iconoclasm.
It was called Inglyshe and was very close to the language spoken in northern England, but by the sixteenth century it had established orthographic and literary norms largely independent of those developing in England.
Periodization, they write, should not be based on chronological boundaries, but a "time section dominated by a system of literary norms, standards, and conventions, whose introduction, spread, diversification, integration, and disappearance can be traced" which must be extracted from history, with boundaries marked by both internal and external changes.
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Justyna Jupowicz-Kozak
CEO of Professional Science Editing for Scientists @ prosciediting.com