In contrast, (3) if helpers in general help less overall, because they are unlikely to gain direct reproductive benefits and inherit the territory under predation risk, within-group conflict, breeder-helper conflict and breeder punishment of helpers should increase in the predator treatments compared to the control treatment.
Thus, cloud forest recruitment and regeneration is affected less by predation and more by pathogens, as elevation increases.
Therefore, we will consider expected behavioural changes under predation risk in the more general framework of the starvation-predation risk trade-off.
Finally, we propose that studies of behavioural time-budget changes under predation risk should be included in the more general framework of the starvation-predation risk trade-off.
Thus, decisions in uniform risk should be included in a comprehensive theoretical framework on foraging decisions under predation risk.
(2) If helpers tailor their helping effort to avoid immediate predation ('risk avoidance hypothesis'), firstly, risky helping behaviours like territory defence should be reduced if immediate helper survival interests prevail (survival was reduced under predation [11]).
Females are, therefore, predicted to avoid such conspicuous males under predation risk.
Since another visual, diurnal swordtail predator, the characid Astyanax mexicanus, has been shown to prefer males with long swords [ 33], females are thought to reduce their own predation risk by associating with small-sworded males under predation threat.
Foraging decisions under predation pressure have mainly been studied in settings where prey animals were offered a choice of feeding stations that differed in predation risk [ 14, 15, 35].
Because of attraction from better reproductions or less predation pressure at other patches, the predator may change behaviors on the basis of prey abundance and demographic advantages.
