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Second, the effects of different cluster sampling designs on the precision of mean lengths were estimated using the bootstrap method.
The topographic factors for eight wind directions were derived based on the European Standard, and roughness lengths were estimated based on global land cover maps.
Land areas and coastline lengths were estimated by calculating numbers of 1° longitude × 1° latitude (corresponding to 111 km × 111 km on the equator) grid points close to coastlines (within 0.5°).
The topographic effects for eight wind directions were quantified over four types of terrain (ground, escarpment, ridge, and valley), and the surface roughness lengths were estimated from a global land cover map.
Branch lengths were estimated from the molecular phylogeny.
Chick culmen, tarsus and wing chord lengths were estimated (±0.1 mm) every second day using digital calipers.
PCR fragments were resolved on 3% agarose gels and their lengths were estimated using Quality One software (Biorad) against a 50 bp DNA ladder (Invitrogen).
Microvessel lengths were estimated by measuring the distance from the aorta ring to the tip of the microvessel (ten vessels per culture and at least two from each quarter sector of the ring were measured).
Non-avian dinosaur step lengths were estimated from the ratio of step length to hip height in modern birds (step length = 1.1hip height, ordinary least squares (OLS) regression: r2 = 0.87, n = 6, p<0.01).
The branch lengths were estimated using the proportional model [ 45].
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The first 105 generations were discarded as "burn-in", and Bayesian posterior probabilities and branch-lengths were estimated from the remaining 9×105 generations.
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