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In the shanty towns of Africa and Latin America, something called "stepped lending" often works better.
Both kinds of banks now have souring loan books the result of reckless lending, often in foreign currencies.
Very large pools of capital held by sovereign-wealth funds, as well as by insurers and pension funds—will do more direct lending, often in partnership with banks.
And it could topple Britain's banks: business lending often includes unsecured credit, or loans secured against machinery with little resale value.What to do about low-profit firms is a vexing question.
Also in the 1990's, there was an expansion of so-called subprime lending, often for refinancing -- lending to people with less-than-perfect credit histories, usually at higher interest rates.
Broadly, the macroprudential controls aimed either to regulate the supply of credit or the demand for it.Supervisory pressure, reserve requirements and interest-rate ceilings have all been used to control the supply of credit, but success at suppressing bank lending often merely led other lenders to fill the void.
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Much of this unorthodox lending, which often come in the form of trust loans and so-called wealth management products, has gone to fund real estate development.
And safeguards such as the Truth in Lending Act often don't apply to small-business borrowers, even though they are often just as unschooled in finance as everyday consumers.
The central bank also adjusts the required reserve ratio, which determines how much cash is available to banks for lending, more often than it does interest rates.
The lending was often careless (the government guarantee of virtually all deposits gave banks more incentive to be reckless).
Public lending programs, often combined with public systems of savings collection, provide a large portion of housing finance in many European and Asian countries.
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