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The idea is to compare the artifacts in the archaeological record to similar items in existing cultures.
The Barriers to Access to Care Evaluation scale (BACE) was developed from items in existing scales, systematic item reduction, and feedback from an expert group.
Analysis of themes and items in existing NORPEQs revealed that the content of the questionnaires was fairly similar, 13 16 but that there was some variation in question formulation and the choice of scaling.
Some items (Q9 and several items under Q1) were similar to items in the previous Natsal survey but the others were newly created, following a review of items in existing measures.
In an earlier content analysis we assessed the extent to which items in existing HIV-specific HRQL questionnaires captured the health-related challenges experienced by adults living with HIV according to the Episodic Disability Framework, a conceptual framework developed from the perspective of adults living with HIV [ 9, 10].
For each domain we need to consider to what extent a proxy (primary carer) is able to report on that construct; in our earlier study parents suggested they had little idea about 'how their child feels' when looking at example items in existing PROMs.
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The analysis included examples and items used in existing instruments (e.g. [ 23, 32]).
The content of the leaflet included items lacking in existing information such as tailored exercises, when to start activities and the relationship between exercises and driving.
In this study we used risk factors identified from a review of the existing literature and from a systematic review of items included in existing violence risk assessment tools.
Although the qualitative data formed the backbone for decision making, the team also consulted evidence on possible response options, optimal recall period, and wording of items used in existing self-reported instruments [ 15, 16, 24, 25].
Two of the new items were set aside due to redundancy (LD) with items in the existing pool: "I had trouble falling asleep because I was worried about something" with the existing "I worried when I went to bed at night", and "I was so nervous I felt sick" with "I felt nervous" from the original scale.
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Since I tried Ludwig back in 2017, I have been constantly using it in both editing and translation. Ever since, I suggest it to my translators at ProSciEditing.

Justyna Jupowicz-Kozak
CEO of Professional Science Editing for Scientists @ prosciediting.com