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This item was interpreted by defining the isoinertial repetition maximum (RM) squat as the current gold standard for evaluating resistance exercise.
This item was interpreted by the authors based on the magnitude of change in the group mean from baseline (p < .05) or effect size moderate or large relating only to isometric peak force measurements [27].
In the advisory group of thinkers, this item was interpreted to mean 'the theory' of an intervention.
There were also some inconsistencies in the way in which the BPI-SF 'Average Pain' item was interpreted by patients.
The think-aloud interviews and the comparison of response distributions already showed that the Dignity item was interpreted differently than intended.
Similar(55)
Thus, it seems likely that each item is interpreted equally by the respective groups.
A failure of configural invariance occurs when an item is interpreted in a completely different manner by two different groups.
One possible explanation for the patterns observed may be differences in how the survey items are interpreted across countries, a significant challenge in any international study that uses self-report surveys.
Seven of the eight FMSD items were interpreted as intended by all participants.
This may arise from items being interpreted differently by different disciplines or even work areas.
So, assuming the existence of DIF is reflective of real ethnic differences in how certain items are interpreted, what are its implications and how should it be addressed?
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Since I tried Ludwig back in 2017, I have been constantly using it in both editing and translation. Ever since, I suggest it to my translators at ProSciEditing.

Justyna Jupowicz-Kozak
CEO of Professional Science Editing for Scientists @ prosciediting.com