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In this study, DIF, an item lacking equivalence in performance across the two groups or settings (e.g., paper-and-pencil vs. touch-screen administration), was identified statistically by conducting an independent t-test on the difficulty calibration of each item.
Differential item functioning (DIF), referred to as an item lacking item parameter or measurement equivalence across different groups or settings, was identified statistically by conducting the t-tests on the mean item calibrations between the 3 assessment time groups (T0 vs. T1 vs. T2).
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Although the item lacks relevance in Sweden, future studies might consider the inclusion or exclusion of a treatment cost item based on its relevance in the context studied.
Since one item lacked factor reliability > .6 (item 12: factor reliability:.567), it was also excluded and the analysis was repeated.
However, a recent study conducted in two long-term care facilities in Western Canada to pilot test a survey designed to measure organizational context and research utilization revealed this same CRU item lacked validity when administered to healthcare aides.
As a result of the Challenger accident, NASA is reviewing each of the items lacking a failsafe backup "to see which ones are still applicable for acceptance and maybe which ones are not applicable for any longer being acceptable to flight," said Marion Merrell, of the Johnson Space Center's safety and reliability office.
Source items were culled to remove duplicates in alternative formats, items lacking in relevant, reliable content (e.g., posts from online gossip blogs), disqualifying subjects not technology entrepreneurs as strictly defined in this research, and entire biographical books too voluminous to permit practical thematic analysis of contents.
For this study, 5 items lacking adequate number of responses were excluded from the analysis.
We removed items with low response rates and items lacking strong correlations with other items (described in detail in Results).
The content of the leaflet included items lacking in existing information such as tailored exercises, when to start activities and the relationship between exercises and driving.
At about 340 400 ms post-stimulus, the main stimulus property analyzed was word lexical representation: items lacking a sufficient level of lexical activation were therefore rejected as non-words.
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Since I tried Ludwig back in 2017, I have been constantly using it in both editing and translation. Ever since, I suggest it to my translators at ProSciEditing.

Justyna Jupowicz-Kozak
CEO of Professional Science Editing for Scientists @ prosciediting.com