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Some major companies now issue codes of conduct and send inspectors into their suppliers' factories to enforce the rules, counting fire exits and auditing overtime records.
Cash.io is a platform that lets businesses issue codes that consumers redeem however they want.
After collapsing issue codes on the basis of similarity (see figure 2), 205 unique issue codes remained.
Across the studies selected for inclusion, there were 729 different complaint issue codes used.
To integrate and structure the complaint issue codes and subcategories in figure 3, a final sorting exercise was performed.
Overall, 84 issue codes were classified as miscellaneous (accounting for 2388 issues) as they referred to codes that were unclassifiable (eg, 'other').
Across the 59 papers, 729 issue codes were used to code the 88 069 complaints, and the number of issues totalled 113 551 (ranging from 29 42 to 26 785 47).
The number of issue codes used to analyse complaints varied from 4 65 to 43, 47 with a mean of 12.2 (SD 10.3) codes.
Our analysis of the issues underlying patient complaints is also skewed towards larger studies, and those with multiple patient complaint issue codes are more fully represented.
In terms of the proportion of patient complaint issues explained by subcategories of issue codes (in studies where codes were used), the most were for 'treatment' (22.1%) and 'communication' (16.8%) and the least for 'discrimination' (0.5%).
Figure 3 reports on the issue codes (and their overarching subcategories), the number of times they were used, the number of issues explained by them and the proportion of complaint issues they explain in studies where they were reported.
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Since I tried Ludwig back in 2017, I have been constantly using it in both editing and translation. Ever since, I suggest it to my translators at ProSciEditing.

Justyna Jupowicz-Kozak
CEO of Professional Science Editing for Scientists @ prosciediting.com