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His radical reinterpretation of the transition between Roman and medieval civilizations stimulated a great deal of criticism and controversy, particularly his almost exclusively economic interpretation of causation in history.
This paper regards epidemiology as a toolbox for the assessment of associations and interpretation of causation.
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Finally, we argue that the apparent absence of a relation between the severity of the head injury and the risk of Parkinson's disease further supports the interpretation of reverse causation between the two medical events.
What aspects of that association should we especially consider before deciding that the most likely interpretation of it is causation?" [ 153].
9. Probability of causation: interpretation and identification Epilogue: the art and science of cause and effect.
Non-experimental designs can be analyzed using path analysis, but they do not provide evidence of causation and interpretation of results should be realistic and within the confines of the data [ 40].
Although correlation was shown, rather than causation, interpretation of the results suggest that poor mental health of farmers may be one cause of non-adoption of agri-environment schemes.
Thus, the direction of causation should be interpreted with caution.
This interpretation does not rely on an assumption about the transitivity of causation and is consistent with Hume's theory of causation.
While it is important to analyse the causes of perinatal death according to its components of stillbirth and neonatal death [ 52], a system specifically designed to incorporate both groups enables interpretation of differences in the rates and causation across regions arising from variation in definition, reporting and registration practices for perinatal deaths [ 52].
In this paper, which is dedicated to Dr. Calvin Schwabe, I review the concepts of causation and how they impact on study design, analysis and interpretation of results.
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Since I tried Ludwig back in 2017, I have been constantly using it in both editing and translation. Ever since, I suggest it to my translators at ProSciEditing.

Justyna Jupowicz-Kozak
CEO of Professional Science Editing for Scientists @ prosciediting.com