Leptin may subsequently act centrally to inhibit food intake, stimulate metabolic rate, and/or peripherally inhibit insulin action in adipocytes [ 129] - all of which would be appropriate and adaptive responses to an acute stressor.
Water must be consumed beyond the level of intake stimulated by thirst.
Food intake stimulates muscle protein synthesis, resulting in a positive protein balance.
Of course, if increased expenditure stimulates food intake then, theoretically, excess intake might stimulate expenditure.
For instance, reducing sodium intake may stimulate hormones that increase heart rate, cardiac workload, and cardiac stress, and lead to unhealthy levels of blood cholesterol.
Another major and well studied adipokine in blood stream is leptin which could suppress food intake and stimulate energy expenditure [12].
Alternatively, dietary isoflavone intake might stimulate the host's immune system.
Gastrin and cholecystokinin are structurally and functionally related hormones that act in response to food intake to stimulate different digestion processes.
In human evolution, the renin angiotensin system (RAS) played an important role given its ability to control salt intake and stimulate thirst.
63– 65 The AAs absorbed from dietary intake (especially essential AAs) have a stimulatory effect on muscle protein synthesis after feeding, 46, 61, 63, 64, 66– 68 and it has been shown that older persons need a higher protein intake to stimulate protein synthesis than younger ones (the so-called "anabolic resistance", reviewed by many authors 63, 64, 68– 71).
