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Tobacco smoking and alcohol intake were ascertained from questionnaires completed by participants in all studies.
Estimates of usual energy intake were ascertained at baseline by using a validated food-frequency questionnaire (13).
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Dietary supplement intake was ascertained using three questionnaires for the first, second and third trimesters.
Usual dietary intake was ascertained with a 114-item food frequency questionnaire.
Dietary intake was ascertained using a modified version of the Kids Food Questionnaire (16).
Food intake was ascertained by a detailed questionnaire based primarily on 24-hr recall.
Dietary supplement intake was ascertained using dietary recall and three questionnaires in the first, second and third trimesters.
6 Alcohol intake was ascertained from questions on the total number of alcoholic drinks the participants consumed in a week.
Dietary iron intake was ascertained using 24-h dietary recall recorded by a midwife-administered interview at around 12-week gestation.
In a validation study (9), we determined that dietary fat intake was ascertained reasonably well compared to four 1-week dietary records collected over 1 year.
Dietary intake was ascertained using a diet-history questionnaire, which was modified from the questionnaire designed and validated for the Coronary Artery Risk Development in Young Adults (CARDIA) study [ 41].
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