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Later research attempted to account for a more complex array of factors including environmental inputs (e.g., professions and community), the nature of the material, instructional traditions, and resource allocations, to name but a few (Conrad and Pratt [1983]; Lattuca and Stark [2009]).
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In the behavioural tradition of instruction and instructional design, assessment criteria were performance-based, meaning that they described the desired performance in terms of what the student has to do (e.g. Mager 1984).
As this study follows the tradition of instructional effectiveness studies and uses advanced statistical procedures employed in the area, it cannot escape the significant criticism raised against this line of research (Caro & Sandoval-Hernandez, 2012b; Sandoval-Hernandez, 2008; Wrigley, 2004).
To a large extent, the research lacks anchoring in, for example, learning theory or instructional design known from educational technology traditions and which would have helped much of the flipped classroom research to examine aspects of the flipped classroom approach more fully.
Furthermore, a better anchoring in, for example, learning theory or instructional design or in established research methodologies from educational technology research traditions could improve the quality and usefulness of the flipped classroom approach.
Finally, the Valentinian tradition maintains that the role played by Jesus is primarily instructional: spiritual perfection and salvation are obtained by recognizing his divine nature and by discerning the hidden meanings of passages in the Gospels and other scriptures.
Heavy instructional stories fail.
Bill Honig Chair, Instructional Quality Commission California Department of Education Mill Valley, Calif.
The unexpurgated edition is instructional.
Pious and instructional works abound.
An instructional DVD is included.
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