If one understands ad hominem as a pattern of argument (providing reasons for the conclusion that one should dismiss or be sceptical of someone's point of view), then one must find a method for distinguishing between instances of this pattern which are and are not acceptable.
Future work in this area will focus on the identification of the type of association between the disease and the biomarker (for instance, distinguishing between the different levels of certainty that can be used to express an association or to specify the type of molecular change of the gene or protein associated with the disease).
For instance, without distinguishing by type of program,Card et al. (2010) report statistically significant positive short-term effects on employment (12 months after start of program) for just over 40% of the close to 200 evaluation studies they review.
Technical issues relating to the analysis may also lead to errors; for instance, incorrectly distinguishing between repeated and independent measurements can increase the likelihood of obtaining false positive or false negative results.
DeepMind's systems use neural networks and "deep learning" methods that deploy low-level transistor networks to produce high-level effects so that they can, for instance, distinguish a cat's face from a human one – a trivial task for a human, but hard for a machine.
Moreover, a label that shows a temporal change, such as correlation with DNA content, can be used in correction routines for during automated tracking [16], for instance to distinguish tracks of two cells that cross paths from two daughters arising from a single progenitor.
The neuroscientist Antonio Damasio, for instance, distinguishes degrees of consciousness in terms of the kind of "self" wielding it: while nonhuman animals may exhibit the levels he calls proto-self and core-self, both necessary for conscious experience, he considers the autobiographical self, which provides the foundations of personal identity, to be an attribute largely limited to humans.
Deleuze, for instance, distinguishes between pre-World War II cinema, in which time was subordinate to movement (the passage of time obscured through classical techniques like those of continuity editing), and postwar cinema, in which a direct vision of time emerges.
We can, for instance, distinguish between rebuts and undercuts.
Kaplan (1989a), for instance, distinguishes between pure indexicals and true demonstratives.
