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Finally, in this cross-sectional study it is not possible to make any inference on causality.
However, the interpretation of this association and the consequent inference on causality remains open.
More importantly, this was a descriptive cross-sectional study, precluding any inference on causality.
The majority employed non-random samples and are rated at risk of selection bias and limited inference on causality.
First, due to the cross-sectional nature of the datasets, it is not possible to make any definite inference on causality.
Limitations of our study pertain to its cross-sectional character, which precludes direct inference on causality, problems of reporting bias given the old age of the participants and the large time spans covered, and only limited control over confounding variables that may have introduced further bias, like sampling.
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Critics will point out that this sample was limited to boys born before 1999, so the results are only applicable to that U.S. male birth cohort, and that the study's cross-sectional design limits inferences on causality.
The cross-sectional design limits inferences on causality.
First, the cross-sectional design does not allow for any inferences on causality.
As an ecologic study that uses a time-trend design, our study is subject to the limitation that our aggregate data cannot be used to make inferences on causality or the effect on individual persons (19 ).
While study design prevents inferences on causality, the finding that MeHg biomarkers differ by hepatitis status in this population suggests viral hepatitis may alter the pace of MeHg elimination.
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