Anthony, R. M. et al. Memory T(H 2 cells induce alternatively activated macrophages to mediate protection against nematode parasites.
Reece, J. J., Siracusa, M. C. & Scott, A. L. Innate immune responses to lung-stage helminth infection induce alternatively activated alveolar macrophages.
Th1-derived IFN reportedly induces classically activated M1 macrophages, whereas Th2-derived IL-4 and IL-13 induce alternatively activated M2 macrophages [ 12, 19].
The expression of PTPN22 is further induced in alternatively activated macrophages through a STAT6-dependent mechanism.
However, that cannot explain the increase for chlorpyrifos, parathion, and physostigmine, which did not suppress cell growth; for these agents, either intracellular organelles are being induced or, alternatively, they may provide a prodifferentiation signal that elicits expansion of the membrane surface as a prelude to neurite outgrowth.
On the other hand, additional studies are necessary to determine whether IL-13 might stimulate potentially beneficial immunosuppressive activity by inducing alternatively activated (M2) macrophages with anti-inflammatory properties [52]; [53] or by inducing TGFβ production from immature myeloid cells, as was described for responses of non-invariant NKT cells in tumor bearing mice [54]; [54].
These results indicate that DIC-induced tissue hypoxia and platelet consumption may play pivotal roles in inducing an alternatively spliced form of VEGFR1, sVEGFR1, in patients with DIC associated with severe trauma.
However, similar to the ability of IL-4 and IL-13 to induce the alternatively activated phenotype in macrophages in the context of helminth infections [7], fungus-induced Arg1 was also found to be at least partially dependent on IL-4Rα/STAT6.
Alternatively, induced pluripotent stem (iPS) cells have specific advantages compared to ES cells.
Dependent on the magnitude of DNA lesions induced, genotoxicity can alternatively trigger apoptosis, as part of the DNA damage response.
