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In more than nine-of-ten smoking casinos in the survey, the indoor pollution levels exceeded the World Health Organization standard for fine particulate matter.
Second, because information regarding indoor pollution levels was unavailable, our exposure model is based only on outdoor levels.
The majority of PM10 pollution was in the PM2.5 range, and indoor pollution levels were similar to outdoor.
Also, installation of chimneys and other measures should be implemented to improve ventilation and thereby reduce indoor pollution levels and risk of adverse health outcomes.
In developed countries, where indoor pollution levels are lower, increasing traffic density and elevated NO2 levels with secondary photochemical and fine particulate pollution appear to be the main contemporary problem.
Exposure to pollutants will be influenced not only by the degree of correlation between outdoor and indoor pollution levels, but also by the amount of time that participants spent at home (and other places), infiltration rates, and length of residence in that location.
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The use of forest-wood as a primary fuel source, combined with poor indoor ventilation results in average indoor air pollution levels that are 100 times greater than average exposure limits set by World Health Organization.
Yet, solid fuel use is a poor proxy for indoor air pollution levels as the concentrations of small particles, CO, and other pollutants vary markedly between different types of solid fuels and between the same fuel being burnt in a traditional open fire versus in a well-maintained improved stove.
Dr Sean Semple, of the University of Aberdeen, who analysed the results, said: "When smoking takes place at home, the indoor air pollution levels are comparable with those measured during major industrial smog events in cities like Beijing and Singapore.
Housing characteristics have been shown to influence indoor air pollution levels.
Therefore, we cannot rule out the possibility of other PAH sources affecting indoor air pollution levels.
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