Absent secular governance, she said, fundamentalist groups "rely upon authoritarian systems and strict hierarchies to tightly govern followers, and they control dissent through direct and indirect or subtle punishment".
Direct benefits of cooperation arise when cooperative individuals can expect help in the future via direct or indirect reciprocity, when punishment or sanctions are imposed on non-cooperators or when cooperative individuals gain mating advantages (reviewed by [25], [26], [27]).
It is noteworthy that, whenever the dilemma is strict (high b), the emergent retaliative strategies enclose the same principles as the most successful norm in promoting cooperation in the framework of indirect reciprocity, where stern punishment against defectors is compensated by prompt forgiving each time a defector turns into a cooperator [29].
The British took over northern Nigeria in 1900, keeping the Sokoto dynasty as part of their system of indirect rule, but banning punishments like amputation and stoning.
This is particularly evident in the SHI item hierarchy which commences with non-DSH items related to psychological self-punishment and indirect self-harm, that may be more normative than DSH behaviours [ 10].
The SHI-22 hierarchy (including DSH non-DSH methods) ranged from torture yourself with self-defeating thoughts (psychological self-punishment) (−2.068, 0.103) to abuse laxatives (indirect self-harm) (1.476, 0.223).
Such behaviours can earn direct fitness benefits as a result of mutual benefit, reciprocity, evasion of punishment or enhancement of social status, as well as indirect (kin-selected) fitness benefits (reviewed in [ 2- 4]).
How comfortable would we be with a decision on capital punishment taken via a TV debate and a vote on Twitter? "We have indirect democracy for a reason.
Thus, the process of indirect interaction is summarized in Algorithm 2. To resolve free-riding problem in social networks, two punishment mechanisms are proposed for specific trust and global trust degree, respectively.
These results emphasize that punishment is only likely to be favoured when the punishment itself leads to a direct or indirect fitness benefit to the actor.
