Indirect parental care in the form of reduced intraspecific aggression may offer a selective advantage to low juvenile dispersal [6], [9].
There is also indirect parental care including depositing antimicrobial excretions to retard decomposition and microbial growth on the carcass used as food.
are a group of about 85 species that are subsocial, showing a usual level of direct and indirect parental care of offspring (Eggert and Müller 1997; Scott 1998; Sikes and Venables 2013).
However, demographic studies of Scandinavian registers (which are one of the rare large-scale accurate sources of such data) for Denmark by Murphy and Knudsen (2009) and for Norway by Lyngstad and Prskawetz (2010) show that there is an independent effect of siblings over and above the indirect parental effect.
Mother rodents provide both direct parental care, such as nursing, grooming, retrieving and huddling, and indirect parenting, such as food caching, nest building and protection to their offspring.
A broad spectrum of healthcare services is captured (physician, therapist, hospital, inpatient rehabilitation costs) and as one of the first studies it even takes into account an aspect of indirect costs (parental work absence).
Model information: dependent variables: odds of direct costs (total, physician use, therapist use, hospital use, inpatient rehabilitation use) and odds of indirect costs (parental work absence); assumptions: binominal distribution of the error terms, logit-link function.
Our study was limited in that we could incorporate only indirect measures of parental IQ via parental education [see Neisser et al. (1996) for a justification of this proxy] and poverty measures (free or reduced-price lunch program and charter school) to substitute for quality of the home environment.
Specifically, in a recent study, maternal depression and anxiety in pregnancy was found to predict offspring victimisation in middle childhood, whereby there was a significant direct effect, as well as significant indirect effects through parental maladaptive parenting and conflict.
However, the z statistics for the indirect effects of parental antisocial behavior on CD through mediation by parenting behaviors fell short of statistical significance (for the mediating path through family activity, z = 1.488, p =.137; and for the path through negative discipline, z = 1.88, p =.060).
Indirect costs included parental absence from work and nosocomial infections.
