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Further potential adjunctive morphological indicators of malignancy include unifocal oedema (91% of malignant lesions and 45% of benign lesions), centripetal enhancement with a rapidly enhancing outer ring that fills in (52% malignant lesions [ 6]), and the hook sign, a hook-like connection to the underlying pectoral muscle (33% of malignant lesions and 5% of benign lesions [ 7]).
Postmortem analyses were carried out to measure indicators of malignancy, tumoural metabolism and viability of the blood-brain barrier (BBB).
For branch duct IPMNs, presence of a mural nodule, MPD dilation, thick septum/wall, and a cyst size >3 cm were indicators of malignancy [8].
It is generally agreed that fine punctuate calcifications on US are the most reliable indicators of malignancy because they correspond to PBs on microscopic examination.
This may be achieved through two approaches, the first being the evaluation of molecular or genetic markers as indicators of malignancy.
Clinical studies show that the shape of a microcalcification cluster and the spatial distribution of individual microcalcifications within it are important indicators of malignancy [ 10].
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The length of the tumor perimeter is an important indicator of malignancy, as malignant tumors usually have irregular shapes with a large tumor perimeter [15].
Along this line, an early report indicated that DNA aneuploidy proved to be a prognostic indicator of malignancy progression in oral cancer [ 14].
In SFT, calcification was reported to be observed in 3 of 34 cases (8.8 %) [12] and regarded as an indicator of malignancy [46].
Whereas growth is an indicator of malignancy, it is known that intrapulmonary lymph nodes can have the same volume doubling times as malignant nodules (Fig. 5) [23].
Thus PKM2 may act as a general indicator of malignancy, rather than being specific to EmCa.
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Justyna Jupowicz-Kozak
CEO of Professional Science Editing for Scientists @ prosciediting.com