In addition to its direct effects on muscle, immobility can lead to a pro-inflammatory state caused by increased systemic inflammation via increases in pro-inflammatory cytokines [ 30, 31].
Pulmonary infection of mice with M. pneumoniae leads to a robust inflammatory response characterized by increases in pro-inflammatory cytokines and chemokines, lobular pneumonia, as well as perivascular and peribronchiolar lymphocytic infiltrates [9], [10], [11], [12], [13], [14], [15], [16].
MS rats show increased visceral hypersensitivity, increases in pro-inflammatory cytokine secretion following LPS stimulation and differences in the intestinal microbiota when compared to non separated (NS) rats [23].
An association of increased paternal age with immune function is suggested by a common link between increased paternal age and mental disorders such as schizophrenia, bipolar disorder, and autism, and the association of these disorders with a common set of immune abnormalities that includes increases in pro-inflammatory cytokines, IL-1beta and IL-6 [48], [48].
In addition to increases in pro-inflammatory cytokines, there were 6 to 84 fold increases in growth factors and chemokines in the BALF of mice treated with active rCARDS toxin including G-CSF, KC, MCP-1, MIP-1α, and MIP-1β (Figure 2 and Table 1).
Given the increases in pro-inflammatory cytokines found in the fetal umbilical circulation and the evidence of NAFLD reported in previous work [47], we performed a TUNEL assay to examine whether evidence of increased hepatic apoptosis was present in fetal livers exposed to a maternal HFD.
Several recent studies indicate that the CPT provokes increases in cortisol and norepinepherine as well as producing increases in pro-inflammatory cytokine production [ 16, 17].
By and large, the findings indicate that in most of the selected indicators of health and healthcare, increases in pro-rich inequities have occurred.
On the other hand, there were few increases in pro-inflammatory genes, although pro-inflammatory and cell remodelling factors such as PIG7, CCR2 and MMP2 were increased.
