If the constraint of (14) is violated, the CMD algorithm will reduce the magnitude of the adaptive filter frequency response in proportion to the level of constraint violation.
In this context, the level of "constraint" per unit mass is simultaneously related to the degree to which water is constrained per unit of exposed surface area and the amount of exposed surface area per unit mass that a polymer presents to the surrounding water.
This rank order might be seen as surprising if one considers that selection against slightly deleterious mutations should be more efficient in large populations, that is, the level of constraint should correlate positively with the effective population size, N e (Ohta 1973).
This study uses a two-parameter fracture mechanics approach (J-Q) to quantify the level of constraint in a component (e.g. a pipe with a surface crack) and in fracture test specimens, i.e. single edge tension [SE(T]), standard compact tension [C T)] and notched compact tension [C T ρ] specimens.
Despite these many findings, the level of constraint observed in UCEs remains as yet unexplained.
Lastly, proteins have variable numbers of interaction partners (protein-protein interactions per gene – PPI – range up to nearly 300 PPI in yeast; Connallon & Knowles unpub)., which indicate the level of constraint due to pleiotropy [ 25].
In order to know whether the level of constraints on gene expression levels differ between NEX and ENDEX genes, we estimated expression diversity between two biological replicates from the 62 different human tissues (see supplementary fig. 3, Supplementary Material online).
In contrast, protein-truncating mutations showed evidence of negative selection, at the level of constraints on the allele fraction achieved.
Different genes and regions within a gene may experience different rates of mutation due to their roles, expression patterns, position in the genome or protein and differing levels of selective constraint which in turn effects the rate of evolution, presumably due to differences in the level of selective constraint.
Taken together, vertebrate results, as those in Drosophila, show a polarity in the level of selective constraint along the IT pathway, with downstream elements evolving under stronger purifying selection.
