Potential limitations of this study include the uncertain validity of diagnostic codes, the possible incompleteness of information due to in or out migration and the inability to generalise our findings to other populations with different demographical or social characteristics.
The 1970s marked a brief turning point in out-migration during that decade's energy crisis and accompanying coal boom.
California's housing boom coincided with a large increase in out-migration, as expensive housing drove residents to neighbouring states.
Between 2008 and 2009 fewer than 100,000 Californians left the state, the best performance since 2003.In some parts of the country the decline in out-migration may be a welcome sign.
Large in-migration, along with a high birth rate and a decline in out-migration, all contributed to rapid growth of both the Sun Belt's population and manufacturing activities.
Moreover, the overpopulation in the central highlands has resulted in out-migration to the coastal plain, which since 1945 has been transformed by extensive cotton farming and cattle breeding.
In out-migration, flowing out of the country appear to be the best and the brightest amongst the highly educated talent pool.
Bolivia experienced a dramatic increase in out-migration during the 1980s, coinciding with the period of hyperinflation that occurred from 1984 1985.
The simple "success" (NELM) or "failure" (Lewis, 1954; Todaro, 1969) dichotomy and the "double selection" theory (Borjas and Bratsberg, 1996) on return migration may not properly capture all the dimensions at stake in out-migration and return migration.
The IV coefficient becomes statistically insignificant, and, at 0.00596% suggests that a two standard deviation increase in homicides per 100,000 inhabitants is associated with an increase in out-migration of 0.38% over a 5-year period.
This, combined with the country's legacy of violence, its impoverished state, and the dislocating effects of a neoliberal "free trade" agreement (known as DR-CAFTA) imposed by the country's conservative elites and heavily pushed by the United States more than a decade ago, is what has given rise to El Salvador's present-day gang crisis and the marked increase in out-migration.
