The set contained the following confounders in addition to the set of confounding variables for cognitive change: marital status [ 10, 34]; social stratum (by education) [ 35]; as well as interaction effects between gender and marital status [ 34] and between engagement in social groups and gender [ 8].
I also remind us that no method should be termed "causal" unless it addresses the effect of other biases in addition to the problem of confounding.
In addition to the caveats on potential confounding by resource availability, competing interventions, and other differences discussed above, there are a number of further limitations to our study.
With respect to adjustment for confounding – in addition to the covariates used to match controls to cases – all three studies adjusted for history of cryptorchidism, two of the studies additionally adjusted for use of alcohol and tobacco.
Because the focus of the study was on the services provided at the detention centres, in addition to the sociodemographic factors (Model 1), potential confounding factors related to the detention centres were included in the second model.
In addition to the independent variables, the study assessed potential confounding with the variable of school type (model vs. regular).
Surgical cointerventions, such as general, neurosurgical or orthopaedic procedures, performed in addition to the arthroplasty procedure have the potential to confound outcomes.
In addition to the issue of embryonic hatching time being confounded with the timing of temperature fluctuations, there are other problems that mean that this design is also not an ideal way to address the question.
In addition to confounding, the lack of a prespecified treatment protocol means, particularly for glucocorticoid therapy, that treatment regimens vary between patients and change with time.
