Robert Califf, who served as FDA commissioner in the Obama administration, told Kaiser Health news that "he couldn't think of a prior instance in which American researchers did not set up an IRB abroad".
Administration officials and experts in pardon law said they were not aware of a prior instance of a president's withdrawing a pardon after it was announced.
Fortunately, if a future instance is very similar to a prior instance, studying history can suffice.
In each prior instance the establishment has won, and a core of frustrated voters sulk off to vent on radio and await the next election.
But a 5-4 Supremajority majority held that the district court hadn't allowed enough public comment before making its decision — despite the dissenters' argument that they could not find a single prior "instance in which this court has pre-emptively sought to micromanage district court proceedings as it does today".
Research suggests that learners can succeed in new situations by applying generalized abstract knowledge (Gick & Holyoak, 1983) or by applying a specific prior instance (Ross, 1984).
However, in none of these prior instances did the receiving super PAC spend money to support the specific candidate whose group made the donation.
Seattle Seahawks running back Marshawn Lynch put perhaps the brightest spotlight on the rule when -- after getting fined about double the average American income for ducking the media in prior instances -- he showed up at Super Bowl press day in January only to respond to the various questions sent his way with, "I'm just here so I don't get fined". .
"At the time, this issue had not occurred in prior instances when properties had chosen to opt out of the Mitchell-Lama program, and so was not part of H.P.D.'s review," said the spokeswoman, Catie Marshall.
The Fed's deliberate inversion of the yield curve in 2006-2007 – done on Geithner's watch – triggered the latest crisis and recession, as the policy did in prior instances too (see my column on this key topic from last summer: "How Bernanke's Fed Triggered the Great Recession").
With reminding, learners have to effortfully retrieve a prior related instance during the presentation of a temporally distant instance.
