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Evidence from in vitro and in vivo studies demonstrates that lactate is an important energy substrate for neurons [69], particularly in conditions of hypoxia [70].
Lactate was once considered a metabolic waste but is now recognized as an important energy substrate in the body.
Evidence from in vitro and in vivo studies demonstrates that lactate is an important energy substrate for neurons [ 69], particularly in conditions of hypoxia [ 70].
Glycerol is a substrate for gluconeogenesis under some conditions [ 61] but it has also been identified as an important energy substrate in the ex vivo rodent heart [ 62, 63], cultured cardiomyocytes [ 64] and the rodent brain [ 65].
Lactate is beyond any doubt an important (energy) substrate for neurons both in vitro and in vivo; most recently, it has been suggested that neuronal metabolism of (astrocyte-derived) lactate is important for memory formation (Newman et al., 2011; Suzuki et al., 2011); however, neurons in vivo may consume as much as 65% of the interstitial glucose (Zielke et al., 2007).
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Decreased activity of mitochondrial β-oxidation of fatty acids thus decreases the formation of important energy substrates.
In contrast to strong antioxidants, fructose and its phosphorylated derivatives (e.g., fructose-1,6-bisphosphate) being important energy substrates are not "fought" by redox homeostatic mechanisms.
However, even in the latest discussions of the brain's metabolism [ 41, 42, 44, 58, 59], the role of fatty acids as important energy substrates for the brain energy metabolism was not taken into consideration.
More specifically, sorbic acid has been recently demonstrated to improve the growth of pigs at weaning by regulating IGF gene expression and secretion [ 31], and citric acid, a TCA cycle intermediate, plays an important role as energy substrate for the cell.
FAs serve as energy substrate and are important structural component of cell membrane or they are precursors of eicosanoids and regulators of gene expression (Shulman, 2000).
This observation suggests that availability of energy substrate for the myocardium plays an important role in heart rate regulation beyond autonomic tone.
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