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However, resistance has also been found in the absence of antibiotic exposure, such as in bacteria from wildlife, raising a question about the mechanisms of emergence and persistence of resistant strains under similar conditions, and the implications for resistance control strategies.
Molecular epidemiology is the discipline that studies the epidemiology of resistant strains and resistance genes by characterizing them at the molecular level, and it has provided major breakthroughs in the understanding of this phenomenon, with practical implications for resistance control strategies.
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This has implications for resistance biomarker screening.
The possibility that insecticide use outside malaria control activities in agricultural areas and xenobiotic contamination of breeding pools might be causing cross resistance to permethrin in An. gambiae has important implications for resistance management.
The observed genotype × environment interactions have practical implications for resistance management.
Our results have several implications for resistance management in Bt crops.
Indeed, studies of the cultivated wild oat interaction in Australia have demonstrated gene flow between the crop and wild species which has clear implications for disease control strategies based on resistance gene deployment (Burdon et al. 1992).
Selection for susceptible snails, mediated by the high costs of resistance, also has wider implications for schistosomiasis control measures.
The proportion of cases of secondary multidrug resistance caused by such initial mixed infections is not known; however, the ability of the resistant strain to outcompete the sensitive strain under treatment and then to potentially transmit further may have substantial implications for the control and prevention of multidrug resistance.
There is now evidence of drug resistance to SP which may have implications for malaria control in pregnancy [ 12- 14].
This would not only provide further insights into the molecular evolution of insecticide resistance, but would also have important practical implications for vector control.
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