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Transplanting the whole microbiome, specific species or a mixture into model organisms has proven to be a powerful method to illustrate causality.
Closer to home, in the sports injury literature, there have been a number of examples that discuss or illustrate causality from a general prevention perspective (Meeuwisse 1994a, b; Gissane et al. 2001; Bahr and Holme 2003; Bahr and Krosshaug 2005; McIntosh 2005).
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A biomechanical perspective on sports injury causality illustrated a number of considerations that added complexity to sports injury causality (McIntosh 2005).
With repeated measurements of health status and overall QoL in patients undergoing heart surgery, an opportunity exists to challenge the conventional direction of causality illustrated in Figure 1, and assess the strength of causal relationships over time.
This observation illustrates that the causality between physical activity and overweight and between physical fitness and overweight is still unclear.
As Brock (1991) illustrates, linear Granger-causality tests can have low power uncovering nonlinear causal relations, which could also exist among variables.
In the broader field of epidemiology, the science of causality, including ways in which to illustrate it, has been discussed at length (e.g. Greenland et al. 1999; Parascandola and Weed 2001; Broadbent 2013).
The results of this study illustrate how caution should be exercised when inferring causality from an association between disease-risk genotype and non-coding RNA expression.
Moreover, associations between variables identified with regression analysis do not necessarily provide evidence of causality, as illustrated in the previous paragraph.
Complex Granger causality is then applied to three different biological problems in order to illustrate its ability to capture these new types of interactions (group-to-signal, group-to-group and group-to-interaction).
We illustrate this research through the development of a fully implemented artistic brief that explores the notion of causality in a virtual environment.
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Justyna Jupowicz-Kozak
CEO of Professional Science Editing for Scientists @ prosciediting.com