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In the fall of 2014, we traveled to Detroit with a hypothesis, informed by prior research, that low-income Detroiters might exhibit some degree of social engagement, but that any social capital that existed would be limited to a core set of activities: attending town meetings, sports leagues, or going to church.
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Applying biomarkers in early clinical trials helps identify the most appropriate patients; provides proof of concept for target modulation; helps test the underlying hypothesis; informs the rational selection of dose and schedule; aids decision making, including key go/no go questions; and may explain or predict clinical outcomes.
Rejecting this hypothesis informs us that if a subject felt a sensation in acupuncture then they did not feel it in tactile stimulation or vice versa.
A 2 (low/high controlling) × 2 (accumulation/instant program) × (social/economic rewards) design tests hypotheses informed by cognitive evaluation and rational choice theories.
We describe below the groups of variables and the hypotheses informing their use in the adoption model.
These broad hypotheses inform future research questions such as: to what extent is physician migration influenced by individual factors, such as personal and professional goals, compared with the political and economic circumstances of their home countries?
The hypothesis was informed by the depression distortion hypothesis (Richters and Pellegrini 1989), such that depressed mothers are posited to show negatively-biased report discrepancies with their children, which we believed would be congruent with an increased reporting of youth negative life events.
We built on extensive formative work, which underpinned the hypothesis and informed the practical design of the intervention and the outcomes measured.
This twin-cycle hypothesis was informed by observations following bariatric surgery, especially the demonstration that fasting blood glucose concentrations fell within days after biliopancreatic diversion [ 39].
However, given that these mechanisms are often not known, the modeling approach constitutes an approximation to the understanding of a complex dynamic system based on available information and informed hypothesis.
Without this experimentation any recommendations stay hypotheses – well informed but unvalidated guesses.
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Since I tried Ludwig back in 2017, I have been constantly using it in both editing and translation. Ever since, I suggest it to my translators at ProSciEditing.

Justyna Jupowicz-Kozak
CEO of Professional Science Editing for Scientists @ prosciediting.com