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The observed heterogeneity of Salmonella infection across health centers goes with the known hygienic levels of residential areas served by these health centers.
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It indicates the hygienic level exercised during milking, cleanliness of the milk utensils, condition of storage, manner of transport as well as the cleanliness of the udder of the individual animals.
Farms which the veterinarian regarded as having a high hygienic level had a significantly shorter restriction time than farms with a low hygienic level (hazard ratio = 1.9).
The variable "frequency of change and supplementation of litter in calf pens" is an indicator for the general hygienic level in the herds.
Hygienic cleanliness (reducing the level of contamination to a level that does not pose a significant risk) is required only where the infection risk is significant e.g. after contact with excreta, during food preparation etc.
The studied colonies demonstrated low levels of hygienic behavior (average brood removal within two days was only 57.44%, SD = 21.76%, N = 9 colonies).
Grooming can remove ectoparasites, and hygienic behavior can reduce levels of brood diseases and depress Varroa mite populations (mites feed on developing pupae).
Furthermore, it seems that all worker bees show various levels of hygienic behavior and its effectiveness is linked to the speed of execution.
Based on the zoning specifications, the level of hygienic installation has been defined and described in the chapter for medium and high hygiene areas.
A hazard analysis of the foods manufactured must be conducted prior to designing a food factory, more specifically to determine the required level of hygienic design including zoning requirements for the food factory.
Similarly, selection for tolerance to Varroa seems to be possible by selecting bees with a high level of hygienic behavior [ 32].
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