Therefore, higher pulling forces are applied to beads far away from the edge of the sphere.
Conversely, when we combined par-3 (RNAi), which leads to "posterization" of the embryo and uniformly high pulling forces [7], with nmy-2 (RNAi), we obtained high numbers of invaginations.
Interestingly, depletion of CSNK-1, which relieves the inhibition of PPK-1 and results in abnormally high pulling forces [36], led to large numbers of invaginations even in the presence of a normal cortex (fig. S5 A,B and fig. 3).
Another sensitive assay to detect yielding is the measurement of the differential cell stiffness at higher pulling forces.
In wild-type embryos, the posterior centrosome displays a rocking movement that is caused by high pulling forces (Grill et al., 2003).
At higher pulling forces up to 10 nN, the power-law exponent of the creep modulus also did not change significantly, indicating that no force-induced yielding or fluidization of stress-bearing structures occurred.
This could be a common mechanism among different cell types,, and it would explain the high pulling forces of 1 nN observed for filopodia., How the friction coefficient between lamellipodial and filopodial actin networks depends on the network organization at the filopodial base still needs clarification.
To quantify the extent to which pharyngeal attachment and subsequent pulling forces lead to higher tension near the sensory depression, we compared FRET at the sensory depression region (SDR) with areas outside the sensory depression (non-SDR) in embryos before and after pharyngeal attachment to the epidermis (early comma and 1.5-fold stages, respectively; see 'Materials and methods').
A comparison of pushing and pulling forces measured using a high inertia cart with those measured on a treadmill shows that the pushing and pulling forces using high inertia cart are higher for males but are about the same for females.
Loss of CSNK-1 causes uniformly high PPK-1 levels, high symmetric cortical levels of GPR-1/2 and LIN-5, and increased spindle pulling forces.
