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We also recommend using low trophic level farmed fish to feed higher trophic level fish.
δ15N indicated an ontogenetic dietary shift with adult crocodiles foraging on prey from higher trophic level.
These nutrients will probably impact higher trophic level consumers such as parrot fish feeding on corals51, 52 and even higher trophic level organisms, since baseline isotopic values have been shown to propagate up to top predators in marine and terrestrial systems7, 53.
These fish would be used both as a source of protein for locals and as food for higher trophic level fish farmed in more wealthy nations.
The study showed that Hg concentrations were relatively low in mangrove litter and sediment, but elevated gradually in higher trophic level consumers.
In this manner, developing nations would get both food for their citizens and a new revenue stream, while developed nations could continue to consume higher trophic level fish with very little negative environmental impact.
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Importantly, the effects of higher trophic-level species richness propagated through the food web, indicating that higher trophic levels have important indirect effects on ecosystem functions driven by adjacent trophic levels.
However, there is still a poor understanding of and an insufficient distinction between higher trophic-level functions as potentially important components of multifunctionality and the biodiversity of higher trophic levels as direct predictors of biodiversity multifunctionality relationships.
Higher trophic-level species richness significantly influenced both average and threshold-based multifunctionality.
Thus, paying closer attention to higher trophic-level diversity (and composition28) may help to move forward ecological theory and application19.
However, other higher trophic-level functions have received less attention, despite their potentially important contribution to multifunctionality.
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