However, it is perhaps not surprising that these alpine grasses lack spatial genetic structure with nuclear markers: they are wind-pollinated, and high population connectivity has been documented in one Poa species across mountaintops approximately 8 kilometres apart [ 75].
Although somewhat higher population genetic connectivity is found among P. elegans populations with planktonic larvae, overall a pattern of significant spatial population genetic structure and low connectivity has been found among European P. elegans populations [ 42].
In our study, the small proportion of sampled adults coupled with the observation that the tracked larvae survived to become established juveniles, demonstrates high rates of ecologically meaningful population connectivity among these reefs around the Island of Hawai'i.
Despite the high potential for dispersion and population connectivity, allopatric speciation is probably the most common mode of speciation in marine environments [ 23, 24, 66, 67].
On the contrary, central areas, characterized by higher population density, more mixed land use, greater road connectivity, and better access to workplaces or shopping areas, are associated with a smaller amount of electric bicycle ownerships [66].
The observed levels of fixation suggest very high levels of gene flow but this may instead be a consequence of historic patterns of population connectivity (Heywood 1991; Slatkin 1995; Whitlock and McCauley 1999).
Moreover, partial fencing also allows adequate population connectivity across roads.
In amphibians, population connectivity is predominantly effected through juvenile dispersal.
For most invertebrates, the reproductive age, growth rate, population density/distribution, and population connectivity remain elusive.
