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Subjects high in empathy may possess higher levels of harm aversion at baseline, which were further boosted by citalopram.
Prior studies have reported that higher levels of harm avoidance are associated with adverse health consequences in older adults including: incident disability, [ 6] and late-life cognitive impairments including incident mild cognitive impairment (MCI) and Alzheimer's disease (AD) as well as cognitive decline [ 7, 24, 25].
Thus, higher levels of harm avoidance may be lead to stress-related changes in neurotransmitters (e.g., cortisol or dopamine) causing brain atrophy, damaging motor-related brain regions or decreasing the brain's capacity (motor reserve) to tolerate ongoing neurodegeneration and the accumulation of other neuropathologies [ 34- 37].
Nonethelss, building on imaging data linking harm avoidance with brain dopamine receptors, recent studies have reported higher levels of harm avoidance occur in individuals with early clinical manifestations of PD such as REM sleep disorder which can manifest years before a clinical diagnosis of PD [ 40- 43].
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13 Other studies in Canada, Scotland, Norway and Ireland, 3 14–16 all identify high levels of harms from others' drinking, and while such studies are not directly comparable (ie, each measures different harms), together they demonstrate that this is an international phenomenon.
26 This study adds further international evidence to a growing body of studies that both identify high levels of harms resulting from other people's drinking, and provide the necessary methodologies to quantify them.
It would be expected that the North West and North East regions, known to have higher levels of alcohol harm would have higher levels of FASD-related conditions.
This specialty was chosen because it is associated with a relatively high level of harm.
Moreover, a high level of harm avoidance (HA) seems to be an endophenotype related to vulnerability to the development of EDs [ 50].
A comparable level of alcohol consumption has been shown to result in higher levels of alcohol-attributed harm among poorer populations, [ 60] and within certain geographical regions [ 64].
Thus, it would be expected that the North West and North East regions, known to have higher levels of alcohol misuse and harm (evidenced by hospital admission data presented here as well as other harms including incapacity benefits claimants for alcoholism)[ 11] would have higher levels of FASD-related conditions.
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