If the government tries to increase its tariff income by imposing higher duty rates, this may choke off the flow of imports and so reduce tariff revenue instead of increasing it.
Because the alcohol duty rates vary for different drinks, a ban on below cost selling would target those drinks that currently have higher duty rates (for example, spirits) and have less effect on drinks with lower duty rates (for example, cider).
Occasionally, governments impose high duty rates (e.g. 30%) on finished goods but not on components, to encourage the development of assembly plants within these countries.
Foreign buyers who speculate on property could be forced to pay a higher stamp duty rate under government proposals.
Hansen Lu, property economist at Capital Economics, said it seemed "fairly certain" that approvals were being boosted by landlords try to buy ahead of the higher stamp duty rate that comes into effect in April.
The rise in lending in May followed a fall in April, as the market reacted to the higher stamp duty rate on second homes introduced at the start of the month.
High-end London homes have seen prices fall since April, according to some reports, as the higher stamp duty rates and fears of a Brexit deter wealthy buyers.
Figures from HM Revenue & Customs show transactions surging in March before higher stamp duty rates were imposed on second homes, but these have now fallen to lower than in 2015.
High street banks have reported a strong start to the year in the mortgage market, saying buy-to-let investors may be driving some of the growth as they try to complete ahead of higher stamp duty rates in April.
In recent months there have been signs that the market in luxury flats is cooling, with developers in some parts of the capital reporting slowing sales, driven in parts by higher stamp duty rates for homes over £937,500.
