High seedling densities were recorded: from 64 seedlings/m2 at the low rate, to 315 seedlings/m2 at the high rate.
When the basal area of canopy trees was 20 m2ha-1, a four-meter high seedling grew, on average, 50 cm per year under birch and pine canopies but a one-meter-high seedling grew only 10 cm/year.
The demographic parameters most successful for continued population growth were medium to high recruitment, low seedling mortality and high seedling abundance, relatively low growth rates (compared to many pioneer species) and moderate to high abundance in all life stages.
Moreover, unavailable land together with high seedling cost forced a considerable number of rural households to become a 'non-tree planter'.
Lack of available land, unavailability of seedling together with high seedling cost, and insufficient knowledge of tree planting were recognized as the major causes that halt the rural households in tree planting on their farms.
Our results show that the largest fragments do not always hold the highest species richness; that small fragments comprise of high seedling species diversity, and represent a high regeneration potential for tree native species in the study landscape.
A fire of mild intensity may stimulate high seedling establishment and growth by raising the soil temperature and nutrient status by removing plant litter and vegetation cover (Beckage and Platt2003, Wade et al.1980).1980
Although restoration of riparian forests improves water and habitat quality of streams, it can be a slow and difficult process, particularly in landscapes where competition from non-native invasive plants and mammalian herbivores produces high seedling mortality.
The high seedling establishment of Koshihikari under both low temperature and deep-sowing conditions prompted the proposal to improve the direct-seeding suitability of Cambodian rice by using Koshihikari (Tong et al. 2007), in spite of its long culm and low resistance to lodging.
A subsequent study found the decline to have been caused by extremely high seedling mortality rates, due to grazing by herbivores and intense competition for soil moisture during summer.
We found high seedling abundance from soil seed bank samples; emergence trials indicated that seed banks had a mean of 21 750 seeds m−2 of soil surface with a range from 1600 to 121 200 seeds m−2.
