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Cooperation and helping between humans is ubiquitous, even when it requires that the actor suffer a cost, and even when the recipient is a stranger.
While altruism can only evolve within species, other kinds of helping within species can share similar mechanisms with helping between species (Sachs 2006).
The plant literature has a rich discussion of helping between species while the animal literature has an extensive and somewhat contentious discussion of within-species helping.
For help between different species, I will use 'mutualism' for helping between species in different trophic levels where both benefit, and 'facilitation' for helping between species at the same trophic level, where at least one species benefits (Bronstein 2009; McIntire and Fajardo 2014).
Similar(55)
Help!' between some bullet rounds going overhead.
Research published in September by the Department for Education showed only 5,461 families had been helped between April 2010 and March 2011.
Merthyr Tydfil in south Wales was second on the list, with 248 clients helped between July and September, equating to 0.53% of the local population.
Horne says his firm's experience will help: "Between them Stagecoach and Virgin have introduced more trains to the new network than any other operator".
Local authorities will have to bear the cost of doing this, and the government gave them £6m to help between January and the end of this month.
Help between siblings may result from an explicit parental strategy.
Through this plan, we will help between seven and nine million families restructure or refinance their mortgages so they can avoid foreclosure.
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Justyna Jupowicz-Kozak
CEO of Professional Science Editing for Scientists @ prosciediting.com