The air concentrations of NH3 at two heights (2 and 6 m from the ground surface) were measured using a filter-pack method, and the exchange fluxes of NH3 of the whole paddy field were calculated using a gradient method.
Infusion fluid, air and ground temperatures were measured using a non-contact IR thermometer (TN1 Nonfumo flue systems®, High Wycombe, UK).
Below-ground attributes were measured using the same protocol used in trial 1, including soil width and depth increments of 0 < 0.5, 0.5 < 1.0, and ≥1.0 m.
Vertical ground reaction forces were measured using a forceplate, and the number and latency of postural adjustments were quantified.
The ground reaction forces were measured using two 400 × 600 mm force plates (type 9281B Kistler, Winterthur Switzerland), one under each foot, with a frequency of 2 kHz.
Ground reaction forces (GRFs) were measured using a quartz crystal piezoelectric force plate 3 together with the Kistler 9865E charge amplifiers.
For objective quantification of the head and neck positions, two newly defined angles (ground and withers angles) were measured using the selected freeze frames.
Normal ground reaction forces at the footrest were measured using a force plate with a sample frequency of 120 Hz (Model 9286AA, Kistler Instrument, Amherst, NYA).
Ecosystem-level fluxes of water, heat and carbon dioxide were measured using a closed-path eddy covariance system mounted at 19 meters above the ground on a tower.
ROS were measured using DCF.
