Upregulation of genes of the innate immune response including antimicrobial response genes support this hypothesis.
The success of Enterococcus faecium and E. faecalis evolving as multi-resistant nosocomial pathogens is associated with their ability to acquire and share adaptive traits, including antimicrobial resistance genes encoded by mobile genetic elements (MGEs).
In order to provide new insight in the complex mobile gene pool of E. faecalis and E. faecium (the mobilome [ 35]), we developed a DNA microarray with markers of enterococcal mobile genetic elements (including antimicrobial resistance genes) and CRISPR-cas elements identified so far.
The gene cluster involved the different pharmacological activities including antimicrobial, anti cancer and other activities proved by many authors.
The Gram-negative bacteria are considered to be more resistant due to their outer membrane and/or the presence of plasmid genes acting as a barrier to many environmental substances including antimicrobial agents [31].
Cluster 2 genes (194 probes), including antimicrobials (DEFB103B, LOC728454, AQP9, RNASE7, SRGN), antigen presenting molecules (HLA-A, -B, -C, -G, HCP5), pro-inflammatory cytokines and chemokines (CCL5/RANTES, CSF2/GM-CSF, TGF-alpha, IL23A), interferon-inducible genes (IFI27, IFITM1), and TICAM1 showed lower expression in the group of unstimulated HPV-positive cells.
The former class of genes includes pro-inflammatory cytokine genes, whereas the latter includes antimicrobial genes such as cathelicidin-related peptides.
In response to an appropriate stressor or stimulus, NF-κB is released from a latent cytoplasmic state and enters the nucleus to activate the transcription of a diverse set of effector genes including ones encoding antimicrobial peptides, mucin, heat-shock factors, and anti-oxidant proteins [1], [2].
The TLRs have been shown to be involved in the activation of many host genes, including cytokines, chemokines and antimicrobial peptides such as β-defensin 2 [ 12- 14].
Three of these genes, including two that encode antimicrobial molecules, were looked at in more detail, and found to be only expressed within the serosa, indicating that the serosa is the most likely source of the egg's immune response.
