These results demonstrate that in the absence of gene flow local adaptation may progress significantly over less than a 20-generation time span.
These biomass declines would be sufficient to qualify all of these 112 shark and ray fisheries for the Endangered IUCN category if they occurred within a three-generation time span.
Here, we found that structure did not change over a 23 generation time-span.
As proposed by Martin and Palumbi [ 9], high rates of nucleotide substitutions observed in mitochondrial genes could be related to some physiological variables such as generation time, life span, age at first reproduction, rate of population increase, and metabolic rate.
Species that have short generation times experience more generations in the time span we consider and consequently they will experience more neutral substitutions over time.
Tabebuia aurea is a Neotropical tree species with a long generation time and life span, widely distributed in the seasonal savannas and wet-savanna grasslands of Central Brazil, and for which there is a scarce fossil record.
Intrinsic population characteristics such as mating system and number of overlapping generations, which is determined by the relationship between generation time and life span, are expected to affect a population's "kinship composition," that is, the distribution of the different relatedness categories in a population (Wang 2004).
The negative relationship between dS and body mass is consistent with the conclusions of previous studies which show that the neutral rate of molecular evolution is associated with body mass and life history traits such as generation time and life span [ 49, 50].
Life history traits such as generation time or total life span are factors that are commonly called forth to explain differences in evolutionary rates detected between species, e.g. in mammals [ 79], in invertebrates [ 80] and in plants [ 81].
We find that the median value of lineage specific synonymous substitution rates of autosomal genes, as an approximation of species' mutation rate, exhibits a significant (P < 0.05, Pearson's correlation test and Chi-square test) negative correlation with species' life span, generation time, body mass and basal metabolic rate, after controlling for the phylogenetic dependence.
Assuming a 20-min generation time in M9, the durations span ∼1000 generations and ∼700 generations.
