The observed variability of impairments and their response to treatment can be investigated in terms of diagnosis (unilateral versus bilateral CP), age, sex, functional level, etiology (malformations, periventricular leukomalacia, and corticosubcortical lesions), and timing of a brain lesion (pre- or postnatal).
Acute and chronic exposure of Fundulus embryos to chemicals present in the polluted sites can lead to functional deficit, growth retardation, malformation, and even death [ 3, 4, 6].
The antimicrobial agent of choice should be considered carefully, as some agents are teratogens - i.e. the agent can cause malformation or functional damage to an embryo or foetus or may have toxic effects on the neonate [ 21].
Smoking in pregnancy is associated with the risk of congenital malformations and functional disorders.
Since HSCR is frequently associated with other congenital malformations, the functional characterization of the proteins encoded by the genes involved in these syndromes can provide insights into the protein-network involved in HSCR development.
Accordingly, invasive cardiac catheterization and cardiac ventriculography are no longer needed to detect cardiac malformations and functional anomalies [ 43].
Such disturbances, as recognized by current testing protocols and legislation such as the Food Quality Protection Act, can result in outcomes ranging from death to malformations to functional impairment.
The presence of the QAV and VSD was detected using echocardiography, which is currently considered to be the gold standard non-invasive method for the reliable diagnosis of cardiac malformations and functional anomalies.
This review will consider how the identification of the genetic factors contributing to different vascular malformations, with subsequent functional studies in animal models, has provided a better understanding of these factors that maintain vascular integrity in vascular beds, as well as their role in the pathogenesis of vascular malformations.
Manifestations of the developmental toxicity include structural malformations, growth retardation, functional impairment, and/or death of the organism [ 13].
