In order for pain to be felt, he maintains, the pain signal must be able to travel from receptors located all over the body, to the spinal cord, up through the brain's thalamus and finally into the cerebral cortex.
Since the Kenyon cells also receive messages about odors from receptors on the fly's antennae, they seemed to be the place where the memory of the experience was laid down.
According to von Holst's theory, as the movement is repeated, afferent impulses, called the re-afference, return to the brain from receptors activated by muscular activity.
The olfactory system offers scientists a unique window on both normal and abnormal brain functioning, in part because it is so clearly laid out, with sensory impulses traveling from receptors in the nose to the olfactory bulbs, where they are decoded, and then to olfactory centers in higher brain regions.
The cortex, meanwhile, sends information about the movement to various afferent neurons that are about to receive information from receptors in the body parts where the movement is about to begin.
The presence of diffuse bipolar and ganglion cells collecting messages from groups of receptors and bipolar cells, and, what may be even more important, the presence of lateral connections of groups of receptors and bipolar cells through the horizontal and amacrine cells, means that messages from receptors over a rather large area of the retina may converge on a single ganglion cell.
Perhaps most importantly, it also includes information from receptors in our muscles and joints.
Gabazine blocks GABA and similar molecules from receptors, thus preventing the deactivation of neurons.
Both the α and βγ subunits of heterotrimeric guanine nucleotide binding proteins (G proteins) communicate signals from receptors to effectors.
However, this protein is able to keep receptor-specific conformation and remain active after dissociation from receptors (Nuber et al., 2016).
The Dishevelled (Dvl) protein, which conveys signals from receptors to the downstream effectors, is a critical constituent of the Wnt/β-catenin signaling pathway.
