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Research shows that in cities that have a higher fraction of immigrant workers, the cost of lawn mowing, babysitting, and other such services are lower.
For the moment, the maintained assumption is that there are no time-varying unobservables at the firm level that are correlated with the fraction of immigrant workers.
A substantial fraction of immigrant women is employed in household services, including both housekeeping and caring for children and elderly dependents (in many cases as part of the underground economy).
Only a fraction of immigrant STEM workers become company founders, the average time to founding, Wadhwa indicates, is 13 years, and startups take years to hire significant workers if they ever do.
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Because only a fraction of immigrants register with local authorities, the true number of Britons heading to Spain to live is thought to be much, much higher.
Edin et al. (2000) point out that the measures of immigrants' assimilation can be distorted if a significant fraction of immigrants return back to their home country.
Also, by 1997 a substantial fraction of immigrants were employed in white-collar jobs and as technicians, while the share of immigrants employed as production workers declined from nearly 94percenttoto about 81.5percentt.
Inequality represents either (a) the fraction of individuals in the total population below the poverty line, (b) the fraction of immigrants below the poverty line or (c) the ratio of average to median family income in the area.
Voting is negatively related to the fraction of immigrants in an area, and, in contrast to results for volunteering, this effect does not diminish when focusing on larger cities.
Census information was also employed to create several alternate measures of inequality in the area, including the ratio of average to median family income, the fraction of the total population below the poverty line and the fraction of immigrants below the poverty line.
Left axes have a common scale, ranging from 0 to 25 % which is compressed for Luxembourg due to its exceptionally large fraction of immigrants (36.4 % in year 2000) Open image in new window Fig. 2 Stocks (1000s) and share of population who migrated ( Open image in new window ) for selected country pairs (1960 2000).
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