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*Use cultivation methods like growing cocoa and coffee in forest shade that create conditions similar to wild forest habitat.
Hilman cites rice varieties, for example, that can grow everywhere, from forest shade and swamps to inland lakes and saline coasts.
Yet efforts are under way to both bolster cocoa production so that less land is needed for plantations and to reintroduce older farming practices that encourage healthier growth of the trees under forest shade.
Vitruvius (27 17 BCE) proposed a connection between precipitation, water infiltration and stream flows, stating that forest shade protected streams from evaporation.
Our study indicates that while there is no substitute for native forest, shade coffee provides habitat for small non-volant mammals, particularly in comparison to sun coffee.
Here we link the forest shade tolerance index to soil moisture in the North America using the U.S. and Quebec forest inventories.
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Habitats were: forest, shaded coffee and associated coffee; and matrices were: associated coffee (M1) and shaded coffee (M2).
These irradiance types thus represent realistic (forest and woodland shade) light environments while their different spectral properties allows us to validate the robustness of the results.
Thus we repeated all analyses using the following irradiances: forest and woodland shade (measured in the study site, see Fig. S4) and uniform irradiance [as in 30].
Agro-forest shade tree species richness also negatively affected pollinator abundance in rain-fed agro-forests.
The stands were scattered over three different landscapes with different degrees of anthropogenic disturbance: forested, shade coffee, and tobacco.
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