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As expected, since queen pheromone slows the transition from nursing to foraging, expression of Kr-h1 is also high in foragers compared to nurse bees [ 31].
The high level of Pofor mRNA in P.occidentalis foragers in the laboratory may represent the increase in foraging expression associated with new external stimuli and the rapid learning associated with foraging behavior [ 6].
Alternatively, it is possible that P. barbatus foragers in field colonies show an age-related decrease in foraging expression similar to the decrease documented in bumblebees [ 12].
It is important to note if task-related variation in foraging expression levels across species is due to mutations in regulatory mechanisms, then even closely related species may exhibit variation in foraging expression patterns.
In laboratory colonies, foragers may be newly transitioned from nest work and may not show a decrease in foraging expression due to age.
The extreme flexibility in the regulation of foraging expression underscores the potential importance of this gene in the development of behavioral plasticity in social insect workers.
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Our results represent the first time series analysis of foraging gene expression and underscore the importance of assaying time-related expression differences in behavioral studies.
For example, if Kr-h1 is linked to foraging, then expression should be higher in foragers than nurses in bumble bees as it is in honey bees.
Whether the molecular clock plays a role in regulating foraging gene expression (or vice versa) remains to be determined.
In this case, we tested the prediction that daily fluctuations in foraging gene expression follow observed daily rhythms in foraging behavior.
Thus, differential regulation of foraging gene expression may play an important role in both influencing species-specific behavior and regulating behavioral plasticity within species.
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